Biodiesel Production from Algae Oil

From last post, we know Algae can be produce become bio diesel oil. Here, I will share how to make Bio Diesel Fuel from Algae. One of process name for that, usually called Transesterification. Algae yields around 100,000 gallons of algae oil per year. In contrast, one acre of soybeans only produces about 50 gallons of soybean oil a year, while one acre of corn yields about 29 gallons of oil per year. The largest benefit to date is that the Algae farms can be built virtually anywhere.

Algae oil is highly viscous, with viscosities ranging 10–20 times those of no. 2 Diesel fuel. The high viscosity is due to the large molecular mass and chemical structure of oils which in turn leads to problems in pumping, combustion and atomization in the injector systems of a diesel engine. Therefore, a reduction in viscosity is important to make high-viscous oil a suitable alternative fuel for diesel engines.

There are a number of ways to reduce vegetable oil's viscosity. These methods include; transestrification, pyrolysis (Pyrolysis Definition from AFR), micro Emulsion (Emulsions & Emulsification – from Wikipedia), blending and thermal depolymerization. One of the most common methods used to reduce oil viscosity in the Biodiesel industry is called transesterification. It involves chemical conversion of the oil into its corresponding fatty ester.

Other methods of producing Bio-diesel from Algae Oil, other than transesterification, that have been considered to reduce the high viscosity of vegetable oil or algae oil are:

• Dilution of 25 parts of plant / algae oil with 75 parts of diesel fuel
• Micro emulsions with short chain alcohols (e.g. Ethanol or Methanol)
• Thermal decomposition, which produces alkanes, alkenes, carboxylic acids acids and aromatic compounds
• Catalytic cracking, which produces alkanes, cycloalkanes and alkybenzenes

However, when compared with the above, the Transesterification process appears to be the best choise, as the physical characteristics of fatty acid esters (bio diesel) are very close to those of diesel fuel, and the process is relative simple. Furthermore, the methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids can be burned directly in unmodified diesel engines, with very low deposit.

Alternative Energy: Fuel From Algae

Maybe we rarely hear about Algae. But we just know it only in biology subject in the schools or collages. Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. They are photosynthetic, like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants. For that reason they are currently excluded from being considered plants.

Though the prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (commonly referred to as Blue-green Algae) were traditionally included as "Algae" in older textbooks, many modern sources regard this as outdated and restrict the term Algae to eukaryotic organisms. All true algae therefore have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane and chloroplasts bound in one or more membranes. Algae constitute a paraphyletic and polyphyletic group, as they do not include all the descendants of the last universal ancestor nor do they all descend from a common algal ancestor, although their chloroplasts seem to have a single origin.

Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as phyllids and rhizoids in nonvascular plants, or leaves, roots, and other organs that are found in tracheophytes. Many are photoautotrophic, although some groups contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.

Nearly all algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the Cyanobacteria, and so produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.

The first alga to have its genome sequenced was Cyanidioschyzon merolae.

Today, Algae is one of alternative energy that can be used for renewable fuel. Energy from Algae presents an opportunity you cannot afford to ignore. Deriving energy from algae is considered the Holy Grail of alternative energy. Algae, a third-generation biofuel feedstock, present one of the most exciting possibilities as a future solution to our energy problems, especially that of transportation fuel. In the last few years, activity in this field has been accelerating fast.

Why are algae so exciting from a renewable energy standpoint? For a number of reasons :

• The yields of oil and fuels from algae are much higher (10-100 times) than competing energy crops
• Algae can grow practically anywhere, thus ensuring that there is no competition with food crops.
• Algae are excellent bio remediation agents - they have the potential to absorb massive amounts of CO₂ and can play an important role in sewage and wastewater treatment.
• Algae are the only feedstock that have the potential to completely replace world's consumption of transportation fuels.
• Algae are already being used in a wide variety of industries and applications, and many newer applications are being discovered. Such a wide range of end-uses enable companies to produce both fuels and non-fuel products from the same algae feedstock

Algae can produce several fuel products, there are:

• Bio diesel
  
• Hydrogen
• Methane
• Ethanol

Renewable Energy: Hydrogen Fuel

Today, the fossil fuel slowly depleted. All of researcher in the world has trying to find the others kind of fuel. Now, the researchers has one of new solution. Hydrogen Fuel.

Hydrogen is one of two natural elements that combine to make water. Hydrogen is not an energy source, but an energy carrier because it takes a great deal of energy to extract it from water. It is useful as a compact energy source in fuel cells and batteries. Many companies are working hard to develop technologies that can efficiently exploit the potential of hydrogen energy. This page lists articles about hydrogen fuel as an alternative energy source.

Hydrogen fuel enhancement is a term used to describe the use of a mixture of hydrogen and conventional hydrocarbon fuel in an internal combustion engine (ICE). The hydrogen can be stored as a second fuel, reformed from the conventional fuel, or in theory produced through the electrolysis of water.

There has been a great deal of research into fuel mixtures, such as gasoline and nitrous oxide injection. Mixtures of hydrogen and hydrocarbons is no exception. These sources suggested that there could be fuel efficiency saving and reduced emission through the addition of hydrogen to conventional fuels. For example, one research project added hydrogen to an automobile engine to run the engine leaner:

Lean-mixture-ratio combustion in internal-combustion engines has the potential of producing low emissions and higher thermal efficiency for several reasons. First, excess oxygen in the charge further oxidizes unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Second, excess oxygen lowers the peak combustion temperatures, which inhibits the formation of oxides of nitrogen. Third, the lower combustion temperatures in­crease the mixture specific heat ratio by decreasing the net dissociation losses. Fourth, as the specific heat ratio increases, the cycle thermal efficiency also increases, which gives the potential for better fuel economy.

Many of these sources have also warn that it would require modifications in ICE's air/fuel ration, engine timing, and other design elements to realize these advantages. This would be expected for any change in an engines fuel composition.

Hydrogen fuel enhancement from electrolysis has been promoted for use with diesel trucks and often with adaptation of the water-fuelled cars scam. However recent tests by consumer watch groups have shown negative results.

More: Home Energy Audit (Energy Star, US Only)

Home Energy Audits

A home energy audit is often the first step in making your home more efficient. An audit can help you assess how much energy your home uses and evaluate what measures you can take to improve efficiency. But remember, audits alone don't save energy. You need to implement the recommended improvements. ENERGY STAR provides extensive information about home improvement projects to enhance energy efficiency, lower utility bills, and increase comfort.

You can perform a simple energy audit yourself, or have a professional energy auditor perform a more thorough audit.

Do-It-Yourself Audits

If you have five minutes and your last 12 months of utility bills, use the ENERGY STAR Home Energy Yardstick to compare your home's energy efficiency to similar homes across the country and get recommendations for energy-saving home improvements from ENERGY STAR. You will also need to enter some basic information about your home (such as zip code, age, square footage, and number of occupants). If you don't have your bills, contact your utility for a 12-month summary.

Hire a Professional Home Energy Auditor

If you are interested in getting specific recommendations for improving the efficiency of your home, consider contacting a professional Home Energy Auditor. A professional auditor can use a variety of techniques and equipment to determine the energy efficiency of your home. Thorough audits often use equipment such as blower doors, which measure the extent of leaks in the building envelope, and infrared cameras, which reveal hard-to-detect areas of air infiltration and missing insulation.

Your first step should be to contact your utility to see if they offer free or discounted energy audits to their customers. If not, you can hire a home energy professional, such as a certified Home Energy Rater, to evaluate your home's energy efficiency.

To find a Home Energy Rater, visit the ENERGY STAR for Homes Partner Locator.

Home Performance with ENERGY STAR

Where available, Home Performance with ENERGY STAR can help you cost-effectively improve your home's energy efficiency. Specially-trained contractors evaluate your home using state-of-the-art equipment, recommend comprehensive improvements that will yield the best results, and help you to get the work done.

Find out if Home Performance with ENERGY STAR is offered near you.

Simple Home Energy Audit

An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows in a building, process or system with the objective of understanding the energy dynamics of the system under study. Typically an energy audit is conducted to seek opportunities to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s). When the object of study is an occupied building then reducing energy consumption while maintaining or improving human comfort, health and safety are of primary concern. Beyond simply identifying the sources of energy use, an energy audit seeks to prioritize the energy uses according to the greatest to least cost effective opportunities for energy savings.

Home Energy Audit

An energy audit of a home may involve recording various characteristics of the building envelope including the walls, ceilings, floors, doors, windows, and skylights. For each of these components the area and resistance to heat flow (R-value) is measured or estimated. The leakage rate or infiltration of air through the building envelope is of concern which are strongly affected by window construction and quality of door seals such as weatherstripping. The goal of this exercise is to quantify the building's overall thermal performance. A simplified approach called the UA delta-T method [1] can be used for good approximate results. The audit may also assess the efficiency, physical condition, and programming of mechanical systems such as the heating, ventilation, air conditioning equipment, and thermostat.

A home energy audit may include a written report estimating energy use given local climate criteria, thermostat settings, roof overhang, and solar orientation. This could show energy use for a given time period, say a year, and the impact of any suggested improvements per year. The accuracy of energy estimates are greatly improved when the homeowner's billing history is available showing the quantities of electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, or other energy sources consumed over a one or two-year period.

Some of the greatest effects on energy use are user behavior, climate, and age of the home. An energy audit may therefore include an interview of the homeowners to understand their patterns of use over time. The energy billing history from the local utility company can be calibrated using heating degree day and cooling degree day data obtained from recent, local weather data in combination with the thermal energy model of the building. Advances in computer-based thermal modeling can take into account many variables affecting energy use.

A home energy audit is often used to identify cost effective ways to improve the comfort and efficiency of buildings. In addition, homes may qualify for tax credits from local and central governments.

Free energy audits from your utility company are a popular way to save up to 30% on your energy bill... but you can always do it yourself! See it on this video below.

Simple Way to Save Energy

With the cost of energy skyrocketing, many people are turning to things like solar to shave their power bills. But you donate have to spend 10s of thousands of dollars to make a difference. Money reporter Stacy Johnson explains how little things can make a big difference.

Energy Saving For Pump and Fan Application

This one of ways to saving your energy. Usually this applicable at industrial and building. On that application, 72% of electricity consumed is used to turn motors. You can follow me save our world by saving the energy, by click here and find out more.

If you have any questions or you need the details, don't hesitate to contact me.

Identify Hidden Cost in Mechatronic System

When first time I work in EPC company, I had nothing experience about mechatronics system. Nevertheless, I'm studied it hard. Now, I can know all things about it.

Now, I has found hidden energy saving system in mechantronic system. I never realize that, but it's true. You and I can identify hidden cost and make the most of potential savings.

This saving can be used in industrial appliance like convenience food, pharmacy and process integrator. Please click here to find more about mechatronics energy savings. I got it from Sartorius Mechatronic System, German company.

Energy Saving Calculator Software for Motor (Pump & Fans) Application

I had got it from Schneider Electric. Please click here for download.

Please use it wisely. This software has more powerful tools for energy saving calculation in motor and pump application, usually called HVAC Application.

Please don't hesitate to contact me if you have any questions.

Energy Saving: Lighting Calculation (Unpredictable But Significant)

When I ask to all my friends, my clients and my customers, are you have been saved energy from lighting system? All of them answered the result of saving from lamps or lighting system was not significant. Why? Because lamps just a little loads compare than others loads (motors, fans, pumps, etc). Yes, that's true. But otherwise, it's FALSE!!!

Why? Let's see the calculation example below after you read where are the energy saving placed.

In Lighting Systems, there are many way's to save the energies if we know and how to do that. I'll try to explain it in details.



Where are the saving placed ?



1. Lighting Control

• Timer Switches to turn off lights after a fixed period has passed
• Occupancy sensor / movement detectors to turn off lights when no movement has been detected for a certain period
• Photoelectric cells / daylight harvesting sensor to control lights near windows. When bright exterior light is available, lamps are turned off or dimmed
• Programmable timers to switch lights on and off at predetermined times
• Dimmable light to maintain a low level of illumination at off-peak periods
• Voltage regulators to optimize the power consumed. Ballast perform this function on fluorescent lighting. Voltage regulators are also available for other lighting types such as high pressure sodium lamps.

2. Types of Lamps

Nowadays, there are a lot of types of lamps. But, we not realize that each of lamps have different characteristic and specification. For the example, the old fluorescent lamp, with T12, usually have rated power up to 40W. Today, with same intensity output of light, you can use T8 with rated power up to 36W. The conclusion is you must know about the characteristic and the specification of lamp that will be used.


3. Reflectors



Around 70% of fluorescent tube's light is directed sideways and upwards to the light fittings surfaces.


High efficiency reflector has a spectral efficiency of over 90%. This means two lamps may be replaced by a single lamps. In this way it's possible to reduce energy costs attributed to lighting by 50% or more.




4. Changing Conventional Ballast (Electromagnetic) With Electronic Ballast

Conventional Ballast have power factor (cos phi) up to 0.45.
Electronic Ballast have power factor (cos phi) up to 0.95.
What are the differences? See the calculation in end of this page.


5. Don't want to change Conventional Ballast (Economics reasons), Use Special Capacitor For Lamps

If you don't want to change Conventional Ballast because you have economic reasons (usually for home application), I have the alternatives. Use Special Capacitor for lamps. This capacitor had special schematic wiring diagram, so why you must use Special Capacitor for lamps.

Conventional Ballast without special capacitor have power factor (cos phi) up to 0.45.
Conventional Ballast with special capacitor have power factor (cos phi) up to 0.95.
What are the differences? See the calculation in end of this page.



Near from the end, The Real Calculation...

When I go with my friend to one of his customer, I just ask for their existing lighting system. They says that using all systems as similar as my design system before I explain my design to them. But they have some systems that still not applicable yet. They said that after used the lighting system, they can save the electrical bills up to 50% / months. I'm aghast with their statement. It's same with my calculation that shown below.

For this calculation, electricity rate was from my region / my country electricity goverment factory. The calculation was only in one point that include two lamps in one housing / fitting. Power of each lamp was 4o Watt, works in 220VAC 50Hz. And applicable for industrial and home applicances.

• USING CONVENTIONAL BALLAST NOR SPECIAL CAPACITOR AND T12 40W LAMP (pf = 0.45)

I = (2 x 40W) : (220 VAC x 0.45) = 0.808 A
P = 0.808 x 220VAC = 177.76 Watt
Electricity used per month (1 kWh = Rp. 480.-)
12 hours / day x 30 days x 177.76 Watt = 63,993.6 Watt.Hours = 63.994 kWh
Electricity bill per month (exclude basic load type value bill):
Rp. 480.- x 63.994 kWh = Rp. 30,716.93

• USING ELECTRONIC BALLAST OR SPECIAL CAPACITOR AND T8 36W LAMP(pf = 0.95)

I = (2 x 36W) : (220 VAC x 0.95) = 0.344 A
P = 0.344 x 220VAC = 75.68 Watt
Electricity used per month (1 kWh = Rp. 480.-)
12 hours / day x 30 days x 84.26 Watt = 27,244.8 Watt.Hours = 27.245 kWh
Electricity bill per month (exclude basic load type value bill):
Rp. 480.- x 30.334 kWh = Rp. 13,077.6

TOTAL SAVING PER MONTH
Rp. 30,716.93 - Rp. 13,077.6 = Rp. 17,639.33

It's means you can save 57.43% / month

If you needs the details, please contact me.

Solar Electricity

Generate cheap, green electricity from sunlight

Solar electricity systems capture the sun's energy using photovoltaic (PV) cells. The cells convert the sunlight into electricity, which can be used to run household appliances and lighting.

PV cells don't need direct sunlgiht to work - you can still generate some electricity on a cloudy day.

• How do photovoltaic (PV) cells work?
• The benefits of solar electricity
• Is solar electricity suitable for my home?
• Costs, savings and maintenance
• Find out more

How do photovoltaic (PV) cells work?

PV cells are panels you can attach to your roof or walls. Each cell is made from one or two layers of semiconducting material, usually silicon. When light shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers. The stronger the sunshine, the more electricity is produced.

PV cells come in a variety of shapes and colours, from grey "solar tiles" that look like roof tiles to panels and transparent cells that you can use on conservatories and glass.

The strength of a PV cell is measured in kilowatt peak (kWp) - that's the amount of energy the cell generates in full sunlight.

The benefits of solar electricity

Cut your carbon footprint: solar electricity is green, renewables energy ans doesn't release any harmful carbon dioxide or other pollutants. A typical home PV system could save around 1.2 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year - that's almost 30 tonnes over its lifetime.

Cut your electricity bills: sunlight is free, so once you've paid for the initial installation your electricity costs will be greatly reduced. A typical home PV system can produce 50% of the electricity a household uses in a year.

Sell electricity back to the Grid: if your system is producing more electricity than you need, or when you can't use it, someone else can use it - and you could make a bit of money. Read more about selling electricity.

Store electricity for a cloudy day: if your home isn't connected to the national grid you can store excess electricity in batteries to use when you need it.

Is solar electricity suitable for my home?

Solar panels are not light and your roof must be strong enough

To tell if solar electricity is right for you, there are a few key questions to consider:

Do you have a sunny place to put it? You'll need a roof or wall that faces within 90 degrees of south, and isn't overshadowed by trees or buildings. If the surface is in shadow for parts of the day, your system will generate less energy.

Is your roof strong enough? Solar panels are not light and the roof must be strong enough to take their weight, especially if the panel is placed on top of existing tiles. If in doubt, ask a construction expert or an installer.

Do you need planning permission? In England and Scotland, you don't need planning permission for most home solar electricity systems, as long as they're below a certain size - but you will if your home is a listed building, or is in a conservation area or World Heritage Site.

In Wales and Northern Ireland, you still need to get planning permission before installing a solar electricity system - though the legislation may soon change. To find out how to apply for permission, contact you local authority.

In Asia, especially in Indonesia, you still need to get planning permission from local goverment and PLN as goverment electric producer. But, I think it's no problem to install it without any planning permission for most home solar electricity systems.

Cost, savings and maintenance

Costs for installing a solar electricity system vary a lot - an average system costs between £8,000 and £20,000, depending on its size and type.

In general:
the more electricity the system can generate, the more it costs but the more it could save
solar tiles cost more than conventional panels
panels built into a roof are more expensive than those that sit on top but,
if you need major roof repairs, PV tiles can offset the cost if roof tiles

Savings can be considerable - up to 1.2 tonnes of CO2 a year, and around £250 off your electricity bill*. A 2.5 kWp system could provide around half of a household's yearly electricity needs.

Maintenance is generally small - you'll need to keep the panels relatively clean and make sure trees don't begin to overshadow them.

Find out more

What's suitable for your home?
To find renewable technologies to suit your home, try the Energy Saving Trust energy selector tool - coming soon

Generate Your Own Energy

Renewable energy technologies like solar panels, wind turbines, and biomass heaters are becoming increasingly popular. 

These are effective alternatives to fossil fuels and will help you to meet your own energy requirements and reduce your home's carbon dioxide emissions.

How To Achieve Energy Saving???

30% savings are available through existing EE solutions, but to really understand where these opportunities are, let’s understand first the main differences between Passive and Active EE.

Passive EE is regarded as the installation of countermeasures against thermal losses, the use of low consumption equipment and so forth. Active Energy Efficiency is defined as effecting permanent change through measurement, monitoring and control of energy usage. It is vital, but insufficient, to make use of energy saving equipment and devices such as low energy lighting. Without proper control, these measures often merely militate against energy losses rather than make a real reduction in energy consumed and in the way it is used.

Everything that consumes power – from direct electricity consumption through lighting, heating and most significantly electric motors, but also in HVAC control, boiler control and so forth – must be addressed actively if sustained gains are to be made. This includes changing the culture and mindsets of groups of individuals, resulting in behavioural shifts at work and at home, but clearly, this need is reduced by greater use of technical controls.
- 10 to 15% savings are achievable through passive EE measures such as installing low consumption devices, insulating building, etc.
- 5 to 15% can be achieved through such as optimizing usage of installation and devices, turn off devices when not needed, regulating motors or heating at the optimized level…
- Up to 40% of the potential savings for a motor system are realized by the Drive & Automation
- Up to 30% of the potential for savings in a building lighting system can be realized via the lighting control system
- And a further 2 to 8% can also be achieved through active EE measures such as putting in place a permanent monitoring and improvement program

But savings can be lost quickly if there is:
- Unplanned, unmanaged shutdowns of equipment and processes
- Lack of automation and regulation (motors, heating)
- No continuity of behaviors

Energy Efficiency is not different form other disciplines and we take a very rational approach to it, very similar to the 6Sigma DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control) approach.

As always, the first thing that we need to do is to measure in order to understand where are the main consumptions, what is the consumption pattern, etc. This initial measurement, together with some benchmarking information, will allow us see howgood or bad we are doing, to define the main improvement axis and an estimation of what can be expected in terms of gains. We can not improve what we can not measure.

Then, we need to fix the basics or what is called passive EE. Change old enduse devices by Low consumption ones (bulbs, motors, etc), Improve the Insulation of your installations, and assure power quality reliability in order to be able to work in a stable environment where the gains are going to sustainable over time. After that, we are ready to enter into the automation phase or Active Energy efficiency. As already highlighted, everything that consumes power must be addressed actively if sustained gains are to be made.

Active Energy Efficiency can be achieved not only when energy saving devices and equipment are installed, but with all kind of end-use devices. It is this aspect of control that is critical to achieving the maximum efficiency. As an example, consider a low consumption bulb that is left on in an empty room. All that is achieved is that less energy is wasted compared to using an ordinary bulb, but energy is still wasted!

Responsible equipment manufacturers are continually developing more efficient products. However, while for the most part the efficiency of the equipment is a fair representation of its energy saving potential - say, in the example of a domestic washing machine or refrigerator - it is not always the case in industrial and commercial equipment. In many cases the overall energy performance of the system is what really counts. Put simply, if an energy saving device is left permanently on stand-by it can be less efficient than a higher consuming device that is always switched off when not in use.

Summarizing, managing energy is the key to maximizing its usefulness and economizing on its waste. While there are increasing numbers of products that are now more energy efficient than their predecessors, controlling switching or reducing settings of variables such as temperature or speed, makes the greatest impact.

What Can I Do to Save Energy?

All of us use energy every day—for transportation, cooking, heating and cooling rooms, manufacturing, lighting, and entertainment. The choices we make about how we use energy—turning machines off when we’re not using them or choosing to buy energy efficient appliances—impact our environment and our lives.

There are many things we can do to use less energy and use it more wisely. Two main ways to save energy are energy conservation and energy efficiency. Many people think these terms mean the same thing, but they are different.

Energy conservation is any behavior that results in the use of less energy. Turning the lights off when you leave the room and recycling aluminum cans are both ways of conserving energy.

Energy efficiency is the use of technology that requires less energy to perform the same function. A compact fluorescent light bulb that uses less energy than an incandescent bulb to produce the same amount of light is an example of energy efficiency. The decision to replace an incandescent light bulb with a compact fluorescent is an example of energy conservation.

Energy TODAY!

In our attempts to educate in building energy saving design, dimensioning and operation, it was more and more obvious to us, that our efforts had to be positioned in a bigger picture. To do so, we have to get in to energy production and resources, as well as other areas of energy use. Our efforts have especially large synergy and interdependence with renewable energy. Major energy savings and a more efficient use, can have very large impacts on the implementation of renewable energy.

Fossil energy runs the engines, politics and economy of the world. Today, use of fossil energy is not only wasteful, but is also destroying the environment we live in. Our use of fossil energy kills millions of people every year, by pollution, and almost all conflicts and wars the last 100 was about energy.

Fossil fuels are valuable natural energy sources which required several millions of years for their creation but are now rapidly being depleted. The prominent worry that fossil fuels will run out was reported almost 30 years ago by the influential book Limits to Growth. This book reported a series of computer simulations of future resource use in which world fuel consumption continued to rise exponentially. The predicted result was an ultimate collapse in fuel supplies, regardless of the amount of fuel assumed to be available.

At some moment during the next five years, we will have consumed more than one half of the total usable fossil oil on Earth. To date, we have extracted 807 billion barrels of crude oil. Only an estimated 995 billion barrels remain that can be extracted at current production costs. If the world-wide rate of oil consumption remained a constant 24 billion barrels of oil per year, we would run out of oil in 2040. But consumption is not static-it is increasing by about 2 percent per year. It seems clear that demand for oil will overshoot supply well before 2040. At some point between 2010 and 2025, all fuel from fossil oil will be too expensive for the average consumer to afford. Exactly when that point comes will depend largely on the actions of Middle Eastern countries.

In 1970, world-wide annual consumption of natural gas was 850 billion cubic meters. Today, annual consumption is over 2000 billion cubic meters and is increasing at 3.5 percent per year. A 3.5 percent annual increase in consumption will deplete natural gas reserves by 2050. However, the increase in consumption of natural gas is accelerating at an astonishing rate. Cheap supplies of natural gas will be depleted by 2040.

This fact is recently completely neglected by power companies which are building new natural gas power stations to give customers in their area cheaper and cleaner electricity. Experts believe that by 2010, the supply of electricity from new natural gas power facilities will jump to 100,000 megawatts in USA alone. Natural gas power plants are attractive to investors. They have relative short pay back time (an average six year in the USA) and can produce electricity for a cheap rate of two to three US cents per kilowatt-hour. It seems clear that the demand for natural gas fuel will increase in the near future but will slow down in the second half of the next century.